New RiSE Endnote folder created in Docushare for Endnote files for the RiSE project. These will be updated periodically for sharing with other RiSE participants. The Stanford working Endnote files are currently living on chewie.stanford.edu in folder (Users\Taxonomy)

Elton, S., R. Foley, et al. (1998). "Habitual energy expenditure of human climbing and clambering." ANNALS OF HUMAN BIOLOGY 25(6): 523-531. AJM -NOTES: climbing 100% more costly than walking -climbing may be disproportionately more expensive for larger animals than smaller ones

EMERSON, S. and D. DIEHL (1980). "TOE PAD MORPHOLOGY AND MECHANISMS OF STICKING IN FROGS." BIOLOGICAL JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY 13(3): 199-216.

GREEN, D. (1981). "ADHESION AND THE TOE-PADS OF TREEFROGS." COPEIA(4): 790-796.

HANNA, G. and W. BARNES (1991). "ADHESION AND DETACHMENT OF THE TOE PADS OF TREE FROGS." JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY 155(AN): 103-125. The mechanisms by which the toe pads of tree frogs adhere to and detach from surfaces during climbing have been studied in Osteopilus septentrionalis and other tree frogs using a variety of techniques. The experiments on attachment lend general support to the theory that toe pads stick by wet adhesion. First, the presence of a meniscus surrounding the area of contact shows that pad and surface are connected by a fluid-filled joint. Second, experiments on single toe pads of anaesthetised frogs demonstrate that the pads exhibit the velocity-dependent resistance to shear forces expected of any system employing a fluid as an adhesive mechanism. Third, the largest adhesive forces that toe pads can generate (approx. 1.2 mN mm-2, calculated from data on sticking ability) are within the range that can be produced by wet adhesion. Simple measurements of the forces needed to separate a pair of metal discs joined by mucus demonstrate that both viscous forces (Stefan adhesion) and surface tension (the two components of wet adhesion) are likely to play significant roles in the tree frog's adhesive mechanism. The experiments on detachment demonstrate that toe pads are detached from surfaces by peeling, the pads being removed from the rear forwards during forward locomotion up a vertical surface. When the frogs were induced to walk backwards down this vertical slope, peeling occurred from the front of the pad rearwards. Use of a force platform to measure directly the forces exerted by the feet during climbing shows that, during forward locomotion up a vertical slope, this peeling is not accompanied by any detectable detachment forces. Such forces of detachment are seen, however, during backward walking down the slope and when belly skin comes into contact with the platform. That peeling occurs automatically during forward locomotion is supported both by observations of peeling in single toe pads of anaesthetised frogs and by the inability of frogs to adhere to vertical surfaces in a head-down orientation. Indeed, frogs on a rotating vertical surface were observed to adjust their orientations back towards the vertical whenever their deviation from the vertical reached 85.1+/-21.5-degrees. During forward locomotion peeling seems to occur as a natural consequence of the way in which the toes are lifted off surfaces from the rear forwards, while during backward locomotion it is an active process involving the distal tendons of the toes.

NAPIER, J. (1967). "EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS OF PRIMATE LOCOMOTION." AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 27(3): 333-&. AJM -NOTES: Relationship between branch size and body size -for large ratio, the tree shrew does not require prehensile extremities -for smaller ratios, the prehensile extremity is needed for stability -or can use suspension w/ smaller ratios (hang under)

SARMIENTO, E. (1989). "A MECHANICAL MODEL OF APE AND HUMAN CLIMBING AND ITS BEARING ON BODY PROPORTIONS." AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 78(2): 296. AJM - -NOTES: 2 paragraph brief on modelling (only 2 paragraphs!)

Zaaf, A., R. Van Damme, et al. (2001). "Spatio-temporal gait characteristics of level and vertical locomotion in a ground-dwelling and a climbing gecko." JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY 204(7): 1233-1246. The effects of incline (vertical versus horizontal) on spatio-temporal gait characteristics (stride and step length, frequency, duty factor, degree of sprawling) were measured over a range of speeds in a ground-dwelling (Eublepharis macularius) and a climbing (Gekko gecko) species of gecko, Surprisingly, the climbing species also performs very well when moving on the horizontal substratum. In the present experiments, climbing speeds ranged from 0.6 to 1.2 m s(-1), whereas speeds for level locomotion were between 0.6 and 1.8 m s(-1). In contrast, the vertical climbing capacities of the ground-dweller are limited (speeds below 0.1 m s(-1) versus level speeds between 0.2 and 1.1 ms(-1)). In general, me demonstrate that very little adjustment in gait characteristics is made by either species when they are forced to move on their non-habitual substratum. Moreover, gait characteristics differ little between the species despite the clear differences in ecological niche, Higher level or climbing speeds are realized mainly (or exclusively in the case of level locomotion in G. gecko) by increasing stride frequency. Stride lengths and duty factors vary with speed in the ground-dweller, but not in the climbing species. Step length and the degree of sprawling are speed-independent (except for hind-limb sprawling in G. gecko on the level). It is argued that this common strategy suits climbing (fixed spatial variables, no floating phases) rather than level locomotion.

Zaaf, A., R. Van Damme, et al. (2001). "Limb joint kinematics during vertical climbing and level running in a specialist climber: Gekko gecko Linneus, 1758 (Lacertilia : Gekkonidae)." BELGIAN JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 131(2): 173-182. Previous studies revealed that, despite clear morphological adaptations for climbing, performance and gait characteristics are barely affected when the specialist climbing lizard Gekko gecko is forced to run on its non-preferred level substrate. The present study focuses on the detailed joint kinematics of front and hind limbs to investigate whether this lizard modulates its limb movements while running on its non-preferred substrate. The intra-limb (fore and hind limbs) kinematic patterns were determined at three different speeds in G. gecko when climbing and running horizontally. Additionally, three-dimensional angles were determined at lift-off and at touch-down for both the fore and hind limbs over a wide range of running and climbing speeds. Generally, the intra-limb movement patterns used during level running are similar to those used when climbing. Moreover, the joint angles at lift-off and touch-down also show a high similarity for climbing and level running. There are some differences in joint angles: during climbing the shoulder and the elbow tend to be more extended at lift-off and touch-down compared to level running, and when the hind foot touches the substrate both the hip and the knee show a greater extension on level surface whereas the ankle is more extended during climbing. These differences can be grouped into two categories: the differences in the hip, ankle and wrist are likely to be related to the observed change in the posture and gait between climbing and level running. The changes in the shoulder, the elbow and the knee angles when G. gecko runs over-ground are likely to be the result of differences in the biomechanical constraints encountered during climbing and level-running.

-- JonathanClark? - 22 May 2003